Belisarius: The Last Roman General Read online

  Belisarius

  The Last Roman General

  Ian Hughes

  Copyright © 2009 Ian Hughes

  Published by Westholme Publishing under an agreement with Pen & Sword Books, Ltd.

  47 Church Street

  Barnsley, South Yorkshire, S70 2 AS

  All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review.

  Westholme Publishing, LLC

  904 Edgewood Road

  Yardley, Pennsylvania 19067

  Visit our Web site at www.westholmepublishing.com

  ISBN: 978-1-59416-528-3 (electronic)

  Also available in hardback.

  Produced in the United States of America.

  Contents

  Acknowledgements

  List of Illustrations

  List of Maps

  Introduction

  1. Historical Background

  2. The Byzantine Court and the Early Life of Belisarius

  3. The New Roman Army

  4. The Persian War

  5. The Nika Riots and Marriage

  6. The Invasion of Africa

  7. The Vandalic War

  8. The Invasion of Sicily and Southern Italy

  9. The Siege of Rome

  10. The Victory of Belisarius

  11. The Return to the East

  12. Italy again

  13. Twilight

  14. Conclusions

  Appendix I: Chronology

  Appendix II: Personalities

  Select Bibliography

  Index

  Acknowledgements

  Many people have made this book possible and I would like to take this opportunity to thank a few for their exceptional support.

  Firstly, I would like to thank Nik Gaukroger and Niall Taylor for their support with background material and Chris Lillington-Martin for access to his thesis on the location of the Battle of Dara.

  For their help in allowing me to use their photographs I would like to thank: Adrian Wink of Armamentaria for pictures of reconstructions of Roman/Byzantine equipment; Zach at beastcoins.com, and Joseph Sermarini and Richard of forumancientcoins.com for giving permission to use photographs of coins from their sites; Chris Constantine of spitfirehorsebows.com for both the pictures of bows and the illuminating discussions on the difference between the symmetrical and asymmetrical bow; Roberto Piperno of romeartlover.it for permission to use the pictures of the gates of Rome; Anik Messier of Bishop’s Stortford, England, for the photos of Carthage; and Dorieo21 of Flickr for permission to use the photo of Belisarius asking for alms on the decorative plasterwork in the archway of the Palazzo Beneventano del Bosco, Sicily. Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Adrian Fletcher for permission to use his pictures of the mosaics of Justinian and Theodora at San Vitale.

  I would like to thank Dr Kaveh Farrokh for permission to use his line drawings of Sasanid equipment, both those previously published and those unpublished prior to this book, and Peter Inker for his labours on the drawing board to produce the drawings of some of the troops who took part in the wars described.

  However, without the patience and guidance of three people this book would not have been written: to Phil Sidnell for having faith in an unknown and for fielding endless questions about the processes of book-publishing; to Joanna for putting up with endless discussions on ‘some bloke called Belisarius’ and for reading endless drafts of the book with patience and clear insights; and finally to Adrian Goldsworthy for both his recommendation and his endless patience in answering queries and reading drafts of the finished product. Without them, you would not be reading this. However, despite our best efforts at achieving perfection, no doubt mistakes have been made and the responsibility for these rests solely on my shoulders.

  List of Illustrations

  Line Drawings

  1. Roman ridge helmet (after James)

  2. Intercisa 4 helmet (after James)

  3. The Concesci helmet (after James)

  4. Detail of the David and Goliath plate (Ian Hughes)

  5. Greaves (after Stephenson)

  6. Vambrace (after Stephenson)

  7. Late Roman sword from Koln (after Bishop and Coultson)

  8. Two distinct types of Sasanid Helmet (after Farrokh)

  9. Sasanid helmet found at Dura-Europus (after James)

  10. Late Sasanian sword (by Kaveh Farrokh, 2004)

  11. Late Sasanian belt found in Nehavand (by Kaveh Farrokh, 2004)

  12. Tenth-century illustration of a traditional German warrior

  13. A traditonal Germanic warrior from the Homhausen Stone

  14. Horseman from the sixth-century Isola Rizza dish in the Castelvecchio Museum, Ravenna

  15. Traditional Sarmatian warrior from a Bosporan grave stele (after Suliminski)

  Plate Section

  1. Belisarius and Justinian in a mosaic in the basilica of San Vitale at Ravenna (photo © Adrian Fletcher, www.paradoxplace.com)

  2. Empress Theodora (and Antonina?) in the San Vitale mosaic (photo © Adrian Fletcher, www.paradoxplace.com)

  3. Plate depicting Khusrow I (Cabinet de Medailles et Antiques, Paris)

  4. Coin of Khusrow I (courtesy of Beastcoins.com)

  5. Relief from Taq-i-Bostan, showing Sasanian armoured horseman

  6 & 7. The ruins of Carthage (courtesy of Anik Messier)

  8. Coin of the Vandal king, Gelimer (courtesy of Forum Classical Coins)

  9. Artist’s impression of a Late Roman infantryman ( © Peter Inker)

  10. Artist’s impression of a Late Roman cavalryman ( © Peter Inker)

  11. Artist’s impression of a Sasanid infantryman ( © Peter Inker)

  12. Artist’s impression of a Sasanid savaran cavalryman ( © Peter Inker)

  13. Artist’s impression of a German infantryman ( © Peter Inker)

  14. Artist’s impression of a Gothic or Vandal horseman (©Peter Inker)

  15. Modern reconstruction of an Intercisa 1 helmet (courtesy of armamentaria.com)

  16. Modern reconstruction of a Roman ridge helmet (courtesy of armamentaria.com)

  17. Modern reconstruction of the Burgh-on-Sands spangenhelm (courtesy of armamentaria.com)

  18. Remains of helmet found at Intercisa and designated Intercisa 4

  19. Highly-decorated reconstruction of a spangenhelm (Rheinischen Landesmuseum, Bonn)

  20. Reconstruction of a Late Roman spatha (courtesy of armamentaria.com)

  21. Sasanid sword and scabbard (Smithsonian Institute)

  22 & 23. Modern reconstruction of an asymmetrical bow, strung and unstrung (courtesy of spitfirehorsebows.com)

  24 & 25. Modern reconstruction of a symmetrical bow, strung and unstrung (courtesy of spitfirehorsebows.com)

  26. The Milvian Bridge (courtesy of www.romeartlover.it)

  27. The Mausoleum of Hadrian (courtesy of www.romeartlover.it)

  28. The Porta Pinciana, Rome (courtesy of www.romeartlover.it)

  29. The Porta Chiusa, Rome (courtesy of www.romeartlover.it)

  30. The Porta Ostiensis, Rome (courtesy of www.romeartlover.it)

  31. The Porta Salaria, Rome (courtesy of www.romeartlover.it)

  32. The Porta Flaminia, Rome (courtesy of www.romeartlover.it)

  33. Theoderic’s palace, as depicted in a mosaic in his palace chapel of San Apollinare Nuovo (courtesy of the Yorck Project)

  List of Maps

  Strategic Maps

  1. The
Empire at the accession of Justinian

  2. Provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire

  3. Sasanid Persia

  4. Justinian’s reorganization and the Persian War

  5. Constantinople

  6. The central Mediterranean

  7. Vandal Africa

  8. African mutiny

  9. Italy and Illyricum

  10. Imperial fabricae under the Goths

  11. Italy and the Balkans

  12. Events prior to the siege of Rome

  13. The walls of Rome

  14. Events during and after the siege of Rome

  15. Belisarius takes Liguria

  16. Witigis’ response

  17. Belisarius makes new plans

  18. Belisarius and Narses in Italy

  19. The closing stages of the war in Italy

  20. Khusrow’s reforms

  21. The events of 540

  22. The events of 541

  23. The events of 542

  24. Italy during Belisarius’ absence

  25. Belisarius in Italy (again)

  26. The Balkans and Melantias

  27. The Empire on the death of Justinian

  Tactical Diagrams Page

  Battle of Dara (phases 1–6)

  Battle of Callinicum (phases 1–4)

  Battle of Ad Decimum (phases 1–3)

  Battle of Tricamerum (phases 1–2)

  Battle of Rome (phases 1–3)

  Introduction

  The main aim of this book is to tell the story of one man: Flavius Belisarius. According to no less an authority than the eminent historian John Julius Norwich, ‘In Belisarius [Justinian] had found one of the most brilliant generals in all Byzantine history’. Despite this, his story is now relatively little known, especially when compared to the giants of the ancient world such as Julius Caesar, Alexander the Great and Hannibal.

  This is a strange situation, for the story is one of excitement and adventure – the dramatic account of Emperor Justinian and his attempt to rewind the clock and restore the western empire to imperial rule, which gives us the paradox of a Roman emperor trying to capture Rome. Although the undertaking is usually seen as a failure, Africa, Italy and a large part of Spain were retaken.

  Certainly one of the most celebrated, renowned and revered generals of late antiquity, Belisarius was chosen by the Emperor Justinian to spearhead this projected reconquest of the western empire. His subsequent accomplishments in the province of Africa (modern Tunisia) and Italy have elevated Belisarius to his standing as one of the greatest generals who ever lived, and certainly one of the greatest in Byzantine history.

  The military activity is set against the context of a Christian empire, where divisions within the church often had a wide political impact. There were also widespread political divisions and one result of these was that Belisarius, early in his career, led his troops in the massacre of thousands of civilians during the Nika Riots of 532. In spite of his actions, he remained a major political and military figure who became loved by the people, and is depicted alongside the Emperor Justinian in a mosaic in the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna.

  Compared to the earlier Roman Empire and the later ‘Byzantine’ Empire, the period of Justinian and Belisarius remains relatively unknown. Those historians who have covered the period have tended to do so only briefly, concentrating on the social, legal, political and economic aspects of Justinian’s reign and merely outlining the military campaigns of Belisarius. As a consequence, the strategies, tactics, armies and enemies of Belisarius are now poorly known. Yet there is no real reason for this situation. The era is relatively well documented and Procopius, Belisarius’ secretary, wrote History of the Wars, a detailed account of Belisarius’ campaigns in Persia, Africa and Italy. They are comprehensive and are generally accepted as the relatively trustworthy account of an eyewitness. Procopius also wrote The Secret History, a ‘tabloid’ account of the reign of Justinian, which is famous for its intrigues, backstabbing and character assassination. When used alongside other, less well-known, authors it is possible to build quite a detailed picture of events.

  Therefore, together with the stimulating story of Belisarius there is an analysis of warfare in the period. The new, changed Roman Army was at war with three different enemies: the exotic army of the Persians, which sometimes included elephants; the army of the Goths, which relied more on cavalry; and the totally mounted ‘knight’ army of the Vandals (a precursor of the later, medieval knights). Recent research has improved our knowledge of the organisation of these armies and this allows a new emphasis and analysis to be made of the military campaigns of Belisarius.

  In order to keep the length of the book within reasonable limits two compromises have had to be made. The first is that I have attempted to limit descriptions of events to those which directly impinged on Belisarius’ life, otherwise it would be difficult to keep the story to a single volume. The reign of Justinian is replete with wars, barbarian invasions, international diplomatic manoeuvrings, internal political squabbling and revolts, and a major outbreak of bubonic plague. To include them all would not only make tedious reading but would also expand the book into at least a trilogy. A slightly wider remit has been attempted in the chronology, but, again to keep this within acceptable limits, many events have not been included. Only where it is necessary to explain the background to the narrative does the account shift away from Belisarius – for example, to describe the revolt in Africa following Belisarius’ conquest and so clarify the need for his recall.

  The second compromise is that I have attempted to avoid an in-depth discussion of modern controversies that have arisen concerning any of the main players, or of the reliability of the sources that are used except where these are central to the story. At such a point a brief explanation of the debate will be included, but the story will be built upon the version of events I feel most likely to be true. However, readers should note that I do not claim to be infallible. Anyone wishing to delve deeper into the controversies and the events surrounding the life of Belisarius or into the reign of Justinian is referred to the bibliography. The books mentioned usually include their own bibliographies of even wider reading.

  At the end of the book an attempt will be made to judge Belisarius as a general using the most basic of standards. However it is hoped that the book will give the reader enough information so that they can judge Belisarius’ capabilities for themselves.

  Spelling

  As is increasingly the case when studying ancient history, especially when studying cultures which do not share a common alphabet, and even more so in an epoch of great change and disruption such as the sixth century, decisions have had to be made concerning the spelling of names and places.

  When dealing with the peoples of the eastern Roman Empire and the ‘barbarian’ successor states in the west, I have retained the traditional, Latin versions of names and places (for example, Belisarius and not Belisarios, Procopius and not Prokopios, Justinian and not Iustinianos etc). In this way I have attempted to avoid confusion for the reader used to this form of spelling. It is also likely that, given their perception of themselves as Romanoi or Romans, the individuals would not be too upset at such a use.

  However, when dealing with the Persian Empire there is a slightly greater difficulty. The forms of names traditionally used in the West have been based upon Roman/Latin approximations, suitable for use when addressing/describing ‘barbarians’. In an attempt to counter the possible negative image this can foster, a form of spelling based upon modern research has been used (for example, Khusrow and not Chosroes, Kavadh and not Kobad or Kobades etc.). This is not an attempt to be ‘politically correct’, but a desire to recognize that the Sasanid Persian Empire was a great civilised power worthy of being dealt with on their own terms, rather than through the sometimes-patronising eyes of the Greeks and Romans.

  Nomenclature

  In order to avoid confusion, the following names of empires and peoples will be used throug
hout the book:

  • For the empire based upon Constantinople the terms ‘Byzantine’, ‘Byzantines’ and ‘the Byzantine Empire’ have been used throughout this book rather than ‘Romans’, ‘Romans’ and ‘the east Roman Empire’. This is not due to any emphasis upon the differences between east and west, or a decision as to when these differences became so profound that the eastern empire needs to be renamed. It is simply to avoid potential confusion, since a large section of the book deals with Belisarius’ campaigns in Italy and the naming helps to clarify when either the troops under Belisarius or the citizens of the city of Rome are being described.